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Shashika Technology📡






"අපගේ වෙබ් අඩබියෙන් ඹබට උගන්වනු ලබන්නේ Technology ගැනයි ඹබ මෙම ක්‍රියාකරකම හොදින් අවබෝධ කර ඉගෙන ගතහොත් ඹබටත් අපි වාගෙම හොදින් මෙම Technology ගැන දැනුමක් ලැබේ"

ඒසෙනම් අප මෙතැන් සිට Technology ගැන ඉගෙන ගමු.

මුලින්ම අප දැනගත යු ත්තේ 

(1)Technology යනු කුමක්ද?html means Hypertext Markup Language

* Technology යනු මැත කාලයේ පටන් ලෝව විශිෂ්ටතම විද්‍යාවයි මෙය වර් තමාන කාලය වන විට Technology ඉතාමත් දියුණු තාක්ෂණයක් වි අැත මේ කාලයේ දි මෙම Technology භාවිතා කළ ලෝව විශිෂ්ටතම නිර් මාන සාදා අැත 



<> අරම්බ කිරිම        </> අවසන් කිරිම               

<html> අරම්බය

<head>  
මෙම ටැග් ඒක මගින් ඔබගේ වෙබ් අඩවිය හදුනා ගැනිම සදහා ය. 
</head>

<body>
මෙම ටැග් ඒක අතර මැද ඹබ අකුරැ කොටන්න
</body>
<h1>
මෙම Tag ඒක හරහා ඔබ සාදන Paragrafe හෝ Depcription ඒක අැතුලත් කරන්න
</h1> 

මෙම  තව තවත් සාදා ගත හැකිය.
<h2>අරම්බය

</h2>අවසානය


</html>අවසානය




වෙබ් අඩබියක් නිර් මාණය කිරිම සදහා පහත තිබෙන Tags භාවිතා කරන්න

<html>

<head>

<title>
</title>

<style>
</style>

<script>
</script>

</head>

<body>
<p>
</p>  <p>  Paragraph

<h1>
<h2>
<h3>
<h4>
<h5>                                      < > අරම්බය
<h6>
<h7>
<h8>
<h9>
<h10>

</h1>
</h2>
</h3>
</h4>
</h5>                                     </> අවසානය
</h6>
</h7>
</h8>
</h9>
</h10>

<div>
</div>

</body>

</html> අවසානය



අපි දැන්  වෙබ් අඩවියක් සදාගමු
පහත තිබෙන අාකාරයට ඔබට ඉතාමත් පහසුවෙන් ඔබගේ වෙබ් අඩවිය සදාගත හැකිය

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<title>shashika tech</title>

</head>

<body>

<h1>technology</h1>

<h2>"අපගේ වෙබ් අඩබියෙන් ඹබට උගන්වනු ලබන්නේ Technology ගැනයි ඹබ මෙම ක්‍රියාකරකම හොදින් අවබෝධ කර ඉගෙන ගතහොත් ඹබටත් අපි වාගෙම හොදින් මෙම Technology ගැන දැනුමක් ලැබේ"</h2>

<h3>ඒසෙනම් අප මෙතැන් සිට Technology ගැන ඉගෙන ගමු.</h3>

<h4>මුලින්ම අප දැනගත යු ත්තේ</h4>

<h5>(1)Technology යනු කුමක්ද?html means Hypertext Markup Language</h5>

<p>shashika tech technology tech tutorial and phone seeting</p>

</body>

</html>



HTML

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Html coding)
".htm" and ".html" redirect here. For other uses, see HTM.
For the use of HTML on Wikipedia, see Help:HTML in wikitext.
HTML
(HyperText Markup Language)
HTML5 logo and wordmark.svg
The official logo of the latest version, HTML5[1]
Filename extension
  • .html
  • .htm
Internet media type
text/HTML
Type codeTEXT
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.html
Developed byWHATWG
Initial release1993; 30 years ago
Latest release
Type of formatDocument file format
Container forHTML elements
Contained byWeb browser
Extended fromSGML
Extended toXHTML
Open format?Yes
Websitehtml.spec.whatwg.org
HTML
Comparisons
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: HTML

The HyperText Markup Language or HTML is the standard markup language for documents designed to be displayed in a web browser. It is often assisted by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScript.

Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage and render the documents into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for its appearance.

HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects such as interactive forms may be embedded into the rendered page. HTML provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes, and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets. Tags such as <img /> and <input /> directly introduce content into the page. Other tags such as <p> and </p> surround and provide information about document text and may include sub-element tags. Browsers do not display the HTML tags but use them to interpret the content of the page.

HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript, which affects the behavior and content of web pages. The inclusion of CSS defines the look and layout of content. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), former maintainer of the HTML and current maintainer of the CSS standards, has encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML since 1997.[2] A form of HTML, known as HTML5, is used to display video and audio, primarily using the <canvas> element, together with JavaScript.

History

Development

Photograph of Tim Berners-Lee in April 2009
Tim Berners-Lee in April 2009

In 1980, physicist Tim Berners-Lee, a contractor at CERN, proposed and prototyped ENQUIRE, a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents. In 1989, Berners-Lee wrote a memo proposing an Internet-based hypertext system.[3] Berners-Lee specified HTML and wrote the browser and server software in late 1990. That year, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems engineer Robert Cailliau collaborated on a joint request for funding, but the project was not formally adopted by CERN. In his personal notes of 1990, Berners-Lee listed "some of the many areas in which hypertext is used"; an encyclopedia is the first entry.[4]

The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags",[5] first mentioned on the Internet by Tim Berners-Lee in late 1991.[6][7] It describes 18 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly influenced by SGMLguid, an in-house Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)-based documentation format at CERN. Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4.[8]

HTML is a markup language that web browsers use to interpret and compose text, images, and other material into visible or audible web pages. Default characteristics for every item of HTML markup are defined in the browser, and these characteristics can be altered or enhanced by the web page designer's additional use of CSS. Many of the text elements are mentioned in the 1988 ISO technical report TR 9537 Techniques for using SGML, which describes the features of early text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system. These formatting commands were derived from the commands used by typesetters to manually format documents. However, the SGML concept of generalized markup is based on elements (nested annotated ranges with attributes) rather than merely print effects, with separate structure and markup. HTML has been progressively moved in this direction with CSS.

Berners-Lee considered HTML to be an application of SGML. It was formally defined as such by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) with the mid-1993 publication of the first proposal for an HTML specification, the "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet Draft by Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly, which included an SGML Document type definition to define the syntax.[9][10] The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the NCSA Mosaic browser's custom tag for embedding in-line images, reflecting the IETF's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes. Similarly, Dave Raggett's competing Internet Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format)", from late 1993, suggested standardizing already-implemented features like tables and fill-out forms.[11]

After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group. In 1995, this working group completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.[12]

Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests. Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).[13] In 2000, HTML became an international standard (ISO/IEC 15445:2000). HTML 4.01 was published in late 1999, with further errata published through 2001. In 2004, development began on HTML5 in the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG), which became a joint deliverable with the W3C in 2008, and was completed and standardized on 28 October 2014.[14]

HTML version timeline

HTML 2

November 24, 1995
HTML 2.0 was published as RFC 1866. Supplemental RFCs added capabilities:

HTML 3

January 14, 1997
HTML 3.2[15] was published as a W3C Recommendation. It was the first version developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group on September 12, 1996.[16]
Initially code-named "Wilbur",[17] HTML 3.2 dropped math formulas entirely, reconciled overlap among various proprietary extensions and adopted most of Netscape's visual markup tags. Netscape's blink element and Microsoft's marquee element were omitted due to a mutual agreement between the two companies.[13] A markup for mathematical formulas similar to that of HTML was standardized 14 months later in MathML.

HTML 4

December 18, 1997
HTML 4.0[18] was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers three variations:
  • Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden
  • Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed
  • Frameset, in which mostly only frame related elements are allowed.
Initially code-named "Cougar",[17] HTML 4.0 adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but also sought to phase out Netscape's visual markup features by marking them as deprecated in favor of style sheets. HTML 4 is an SGML application conforming to ISO 8879 – SGML.[19]
April 24, 1998
HTML 4.0[20] was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number.
December 24, 1999
HTML 4.01[21] was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers the same three variations as HTML 4.0 and its last errata[22] were published on May 12, 2001.
May 2000
ISO/IEC 15445:2000[23] ("ISO HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict) was published as an ISO/IEC international standard.[24] In the ISO, this standard is in the domain of the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34 (ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 34 – Document description and processing languages).[23]
After HTML 4.01, there were no new versions of HTML for many years, as the development of the parallel, XML-based language XHTML occupied the W3C's HTML Working Group.

HTML 5

Main article: HTML5
October 28, 2014
HTML5[25] was published as a W3C Recommendation.[26]
November 1, 2016
HTML 5.1[27] was published as a W3C Recommendation.[28][29]
December 14, 2017
HTML 5.2[30] was published as a W3C Recommendation.[31][32]

HTML draft version timeline

October 1991
HTML Tags,[6] an informal CERN document listing 18 HTML tags, was first mentioned in public.
June 1992
First informal draft of the HTML DTD,[33] with seven subsequent revisions (July 15, August 6, August 18, November 17, November 19, November 20, November 22)[34][35][36]
November 1992
HTML DTD 1.1 (the first with a version number, based on RCS revisions, which start with 1.1 rather than 1.0), an informal draft[36]
June 1993
Hypertext Markup Language[37] was published by the IETF IIIR Working Group as an Internet Draft (a rough proposal for a standard). It was replaced by a second version[38] one month later.
November 1993
HTML+ was published by the IETF as an Internet Draft and was a competing proposal to the Hypertext Markup Language draft. It expired in July 1994.[39]
November 1994
First draft (revision 00) of HTML 2.0 published by IETF itself[40] (called as "HTML 2.0" from revision 02[41]), that finally led to the publication of RFC 1866 in November 1995.[42]
April 1995 (authored March 1995)
HTML 3.0[43] was proposed as a standard to the IETF, but the proposal expired five months later (28 September 1995)[44] without further action. It included many of the capabilities that were in Raggett's HTML+ proposal, such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex mathematical formulas.[44]
W3C began development of its own Arena browser as a test bed for HTML 3 and Cascading Style Sheets,[45][46][47] but HTML 3.0 did not succeed for several reasons. The draft was considered very large at 150 pages and the pace of browser development, as well as the number of interested parties, had outstripped the resources of the IETF.[13] Browser vendors, including Microsoft and Netscape at the time, chose to implement different subsets of HTML 3's draft features as well as to introduce their own extensions to it.[13] (see Browser wars). These included extensions to control stylistic aspects of documents, contrary to the "belief [of the academic engineering community] that such things as text color, background texture, font size, and font face were definitely outside the scope of a language when their only intent was to specify how a document would be organized."[13] Dave Raggett, who has been a W3C Fellow for many years, has commented for example: "To a certain extent, Microsoft built its business on the Web by extending HTML features."[13]
Official HTML5 logo
Logo of HTML5
January 2008
HTML5 was published as a Working Draft by the W3C.[48]
Although its syntax closely resembles that of SGML, HTML5 has abandoned any attempt to be an SGML application and has explicitly defined its own "html" serialization, in addition to an alternative XML-based XHTML5 serialization.[49]
2011 HTML5 – Last Call
On 14 February 2011, the W3C extended the charter of its HTML Working Group with clear milestones for HTML5. In May 2011, the working group advanced HTML5 to "Last Call", an invitation to communities inside and outside W3C to confirm the technical soundness of the specification. The W3C developed a comprehensive test suite to achieve broad interoperability for the full specification by 2014, which was the target date for recommendation.[50] In January 2011, the WHATWG renamed its "HTML5" living standard to "HTML". The W3C nevertheless continues its project to release HTML5.[51]
2012 HTML5 – Candidate Recommendation
In July 2012, WHATWG and W3C decided on a degree of separation. W3C will continue the HTML5 specification work, focusing on a single definitive standard, which is considered a "snapshot" by WHATWG. The WHATWG organization will continue its work with HTML5 as a "Living Standard". The concept of a living standard is that it is never complete and is always being updated and improved. New features can be added but functionality will not be removed.[52]
In December 2012, W3C designated HTML5 as a Candidate Recommendation.[53] The criterion for advancement to W3C Recommendation is "two 100% complete and fully interoperable implementations".[54]
2014 HTML5 – Proposed Recommendation and Recommendation
In September 2014, W3C moved HTML5 to Proposed Recommendation.[55]
On 28 October 2014, HTML5 was released as a stable W3C Recommendation,[56] meaning the specification process is complete.[57]

XHTML versions

Main article: XHTML

XHTML is a separate language that began as a reformulation of HTML 4.01 using XML 1.0. It is now referred to as "the XML syntax for HTML" and no longer being developed as a separate standard.[58]

  • XHTML 1.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation on January 26, 2000,[59] and was later revised and republished on August 1, 2002. It offers the same three variations as HTML 4.0 and 4.01, reformulated in XML, with minor restrictions.
  • XHTML 1.1[60] was published as a W3C Recommendation on May 31, 2001. It is based on XHTML 1.0 Strict, but includes minor changes, can be customized, and is reformulated using modules in the W3C recommendation "Modularization of XHTML", which was published on April 10, 2001.[61]
  • XHTML 2.0 was a working draft, work on it was abandoned in 2009 in favor of work on HTML5 and XHTML5.[62][63][64] XHTML 2.0 was incompatible with XHTML 1.x and, therefore, would be more accurately characterized as an XHTML-inspired new language than an update to XHTML 1.x.

Transition of HTML Publication to WHATWG

See also: HTML5 § W3C and WHATWG conflict

On 28 May 2019, the W3C announced that WHATWG would be the sole publisher of the HTML and DOM standards.[65][66][67][68] The W3C and WHATWG had been publishing competing standards since 2012. While the W3C standard was identical to the WHATWG in 2007 the standards have since progressively diverged due to different design decisions.[69] The WHATWG "Living Standard" had been the de facto web standard for some time.[70]

Markup

HTML markup consists of several key components, including those called tags (and their attributes), character-based data types, character references and entity references. HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>, although some represent empty elements and so are unpaired, for example <img>. The first tag in such a pair is the start tag, and the second is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags).

Another important component is the HTML document type declaration, which triggers standards mode rendering.

The following is an example of the classic "Hello, World!" program:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
  <head>
    <title>This is a title</title>
  </head>
  <body>
    <div>
        <p>Hello world!</p>
    </div>
  </body>
</html>

The text between <html> and </html> describes the web page, and the text between <body> and </body> is the visible page content. The markup text <title>This is a title</title> defines the browser page title shown on browser tabs and window titles and the tag <div> defines a division of the page used for easy styling. Between <head> and </head>, a <meta> element can be used to define webpage metadata.

The Document Type Declaration <!DOCTYPE html> is for HTML5. If a declaration is not included, various browsers will revert to "quirks mode" for rendering.[71]

Elements

Main article: HTML element
HTML element content categories

HTML documents imply a structure of nested HTML elements. These are indicated in the document by HTML tags, enclosed in angle brackets thus: <p>.[72][better source needed]

In the simple, general case, the extent of an element is indicated by a pair of tags: a "start tag" <p> and "end tag" </p>. The text content of the element, if any, is placed between these tags.

Tags may also enclose further tag markup between the start and end, including a mixture of tags and text. This indicates further (nested) elements, as children of the parent element.

The start tag may also include the element's attributes within the tag. These indicate other information, such as identifiers for sections within the document, identifiers used to bind style information to the presentation of the document, and for some tags such as the <img> used to embed images, the reference to the image resource in the format like this: <img src="example.com/example.jpg">

Some elements, such as the line break <br />, or <br /> do not permit any embedded content, either text or further tags. These require only a single empty tag (akin to a start tag) and do not use an end tag.

Many tags, particularly the closing end tag for the very commonly used paragraph element <p>, are optional. An HTML browser or other agent can infer the closure for the end of an element from the context and the structural rules defined by the HTML standard. These rules are complex and not widely understood by most HTML coders.

The general form of an HTML element is therefore: <tag attribute1="value1" attribute2="value2">''content''</tag>. Some HTML elements are defined as empty elements and take the form <tag attribute1="value1" attribute2="value2">. Empty elements may enclose no content, for instance, the <br /> tag or the inline <img> tag. The name of an HTML element is the name used in the tags. Note that the end tag's name is preceded by a slash character, /, and that in empty elements the end tag is neither required nor allowed. If attributes are not mentioned, default values are used in each case.

Element examples

See also: HTML element

Header of the HTML document: <head>...</head>. The title is included in the head, for example:

<head>
  <title>The Title</title>
  <link rel="stylesheet" href="stylebyjimbowales.css" /> <!-- Imports Stylesheets -->
</head>
Headings

HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags with H1 being the highest (or most important) level and H6 the least:

<h1>Heading level 1</h1>
<h2>Heading level 2</h2>
<h3>Heading level 3</h3>
<h4>Heading level 4</h4>
<h5>Heading level 5</h5>
<h6>Heading level 6</h6>

The effects are:

Heading Level 1
Heading Level 2
Heading Level 3
Heading Level 4
Heading Level 5
Heading Level 6

Note that CSS can drastically change the rendering.

Paragraphs:

<p>Paragraph 1</p> <p>Paragraph 2</p>

Line breaks:

<br />. The difference between <br /> and <p> is that <br /> breaks a line without altering the semantic structure of the page, whereas <p> sections the page into paragraphs. The element <br /> is an empty element in that, although it may have attributes, it can take no content and it may not have an end tag.

<p>This <br /> is a paragraph <br /> with <br /> line breaks</p>

This is a link in HTML. To create a link the <a> tag is used. The href attribute holds the URL address of the link.

<a href="https://www.wikipedia.org/">A link to Wikipedia!</a>

Inputs:

There are many possible ways a user can give input/s like:

<input type="text" /> <!-- This is for text input -->
<input type="file" /> <!-- This is for uploading files -->
<input type="checkbox" /> <!-- This is for checkboxes -->

Comments:

<!-- This is a comment -->

Comments can help in the understanding of the markup and do not display in the webpage.

There are several types of markup elements used in HTML:

Structural markup indicates the purpose of text
For example, <h2>Golf</h2> establishes "Golf" as a second-level heading. Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most web browsers have default styles for element formatting. Content may be further styled using Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).[73]
Presentational markup indicates the appearance of the text, regardless of its purpose
For example, <b>bold text</b> indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in bold text, but gives a little indication what devices that are unable to do this (such as aural devices that read the text aloud) should do. In the case of both <b>bold text</b> and <i>italic text</i>, there are other elements that may have equivalent visual renderings but that are more semantic in nature, such as <strong>strong text</strong> and <em>emphasized text</em> respectively. It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements. However, they are not equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen reader to emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen, such a name would be italicized. Most presentational markup elements have become deprecated under the HTML 4.0 specification in favor of using CSS for styling.
Hypertext markup makes parts of a document into links to other documents
An anchor element creates a hyperlink in the document and its href attribute sets the link's target URL. For example, the HTML markup <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a>, will render the word "Wikipedia" as a hyperlink. To render an image as a hyperlink, an img element is inserted as content into the a element. Like br, img is an empty element with attributes but no content or closing tag. <a href="https://example.org"><img src="image.gif" alt="descriptive text" width="50" height="50" border="0"></a>.

Attributes

Main article: HTML attribute

Most of the attributes of an element are name–value pairs, separated by = and written within the start tag of an element after the element's name. The value may be enclosed in single or double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML (but not XHTML).[74][75] Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe.[76] In contrast with name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their presence in the start tag of the element,[6] like the ismap attribute for the img element.[77]

There are several common attributes that may appear in many elements :

  • The id attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element. This is used to identify the element so that stylesheets can alter its presentational properties, and scripts may alter, animate or delete its contents or presentation. Appended to the URL of the page, it provides a globally unique identifier for the element, typically a sub-section of the page. For example, the ID "Attributes" in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML#Attributes.
  • The class attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements. This can be used for semantic or presentation purposes. For example, an HTML document might semantically use the designation <class="notation"> to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to the main text of the document. In presentation, such elements might be gathered together and presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML source. Class attributes are used semantically in microformats. Multiple class values may be specified; for example <class="notation important"> puts the element into both the notation and the important classes.
  • An author may use the style attribute to assign presentational properties to a particular element. It is considered better practice to use an element's id or class attributes to select the element from within a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple, specific, or ad hoc styling.
  • The title attribute is used to attach a subtextual explanations to an element. In most browsers this attribute is displayed as a tooltip.
  • The lang attribute identifies the natural language of the element's contents, which may be different from that of the rest of the document. For example, in an English-language document:
    <p>Oh well, <span lang="fr">c'est la vie</span>, as they say in France.</p>

The abbreviation element, abbr, can be used to demonstrate some of these attributes:

<abbr id="anId" class="jargon" style="color:purple;" title="Hypertext Markup Language">HTML</abbr>

This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language."

Most elements take the language-related attribute dir to specify text direction, such as with "rtl" for right-to-left text in, for example, Arabic, Persian or Hebrew.[78]

Character and entity references

See also: List of XML and HTML character entity references and Unicode and HTML

As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050 numeric character references, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup, rather than literally. A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically.

The ability to "escape" characters in this way allows for the characters < and & (when written as &lt; and &amp;, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup. For example, a literal < normally indicates the start of a tag, and & normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as &amp; or &#x26; or &#38; allows & to be included in the content of an element or in the value of an attribute. The double-quote character ("), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as &quot; or &#x22; or &#34; when it appears within the attribute value itself. Equivalently, the single-quote character ('), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as &#x27; or &#39; (or as &apos; in HTML5 or XHTML documents[79][80]) when it appears within the attribute value itself. If document authors overlook the need to escape such characters, some browsers can be very forgiving and try to use context to guess their intent. The result is still invalid markup, which makes the document less accessible to other browsers and to other user agents that may try to parse the document for search and indexing purposes for example.

Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed, or that are not available in the document's character encoding, to be represented within the element and attribute content. For example, the acute-accented e (é), a character typically found only on Western European and South American keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference &eacute; or as the numeric references &#xE9; or &#233;, using characters that are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings. Unicode character encodings such as UTF-8 are compatible with all modern browsers and allow direct access to almost all the characters of the world's writing systems.[81]

Example HTML Escape Sequences
NamedDecimalHexadecimalResultDescriptionNotes
&amp;&#38;&#x26;&Ampersand
&lt;&#60;&#x3C;<Less Than
&gt;&#62;&#x3e;>Greater Than
&quot;&#34;&#x22;"Double Quote
&apos;&#39;&#x27;'Single Quote
&nbsp;&#160;&#xA0;Non-Breaking Space
&copy;&#169;&#xA9;©Copyright
&reg;&#174;&#xAE;®Registered Trademark
&dagger;&#8224;&#x2020;†Dagger
&Dagger;&#8225;&#x2021;‡Double daggerNames are case sensitive
&ddagger;&#8225;&#x2021;‡Double daggerNames may have synonyms
&trade;&#8482;&#x2122;™Trademark

Data types

HTML defines several data types for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length, languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on. All of these data types are specializations of character data.

Document type declaration

HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration (informally, a "doctype"). In browsers, the doctype helps to define the rendering mode—particularly whether to use quirks mode.

The original purpose of the doctype was to enable the parsing and validation of HTML documents by SGML tools based on the Document Type Definition (DTD). The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains a machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD. Browsers, on the other hand, do not implement HTML as an application of SGML and as consequence do not read the DTD.

HTML5 does not define a DTD; therefore, in HTML5 the doctype declaration is simpler and shorter:[82]

<!DOCTYPE html>

An example of an HTML 4 doctype

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "https://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">

This declaration references the DTD for the "strict" version of HTML 4.01. SGML-based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation. In modern browsers, a valid doctype activates standards mode as opposed to quirks mode.

In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs, as explained below. The transitional type is the most inclusive, incorporating current tags as well as older or "deprecated" tags, with the Strict DTD excluding deprecated tags. The frameset has all tags necessary to make frames on a page along with the tags included in transitional type.[83]

Semantic HTML

Main article: Semantic HTML

Semantic HTML is a way of writing HTML that emphasizes the meaning of the encoded information over its presentation (look). HTML has included semantic markup from its inception,[84] but has also included presentational markup, such as <font>, <i> and <center> tags. There are also the semantically neutral div and span tags. Since the late 1990s, when Cascading Style Sheets were beginning to work in most browsers, web authors have been encouraged to avoid the use of presentational HTML markup with a view to the separation of content and presentation.[85]

In a 2001 discussion of the Semantic Web, Tim Berners-Lee and others gave examples of ways in which intelligent software "agents" may one day automatically crawl the web and find, filter, and correlate previously unrelated, published facts for the benefit of human users.[86] Such agents are not commonplace even now, but some of the ideas of Web 2.0, mashups and price comparison websites may be coming close. The main difference between these web application hybrids and Berners-Lee's semantic agents lies in the fact that the current aggregation and hybridization of information is usually designed by web developers, who already know the web locations and the API semantics of the specific data they wish to mash, compare and combine.

An important type of web agent that does crawl and read web pages automatically, without prior knowledge of what it might find, is the web crawler or search-engine spider. These software agents are dependent on the semantic clarity of web pages they find as they use various techniques and algorithms to read and index millions of web pages a day and provide web users with search facilities without which the World Wide Web's usefulness would be greatly reduced.

In order for search engine spiders to be able to rate the significance of pieces of text they find in HTML documents, and also for those creating mashups and other hybrids as well as for more automated agents as they are developed, the semantic structures that exist in HTML need to be widely and uniformly applied to bring out the meaning of the published text.[87]

Presentational markup tags are deprecated in current HTML and XHTML recommendations. The majority of presentational features from previous versions of HTML are no longer allowed as they lead to poorer accessibility, higher cost of site maintenance, and larger document sizes.[88]

Good semantic HTML also improves the accessibility of web documents (see also Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). For example, when a screen reader or audio browser can correctly ascertain the structure of a document, it will not waste the visually impaired user's time by reading out repeated or irrelevant information when it has been marked up correctly.

Delivery

HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file. However, they are most often delivered either by HTTP from a web server or by email.

HTTP

Main article: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

The World Wide Web is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from web servers to web browsers using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). However, HTTP is used to serve images, sound, and other content, in addition to HTML. To allow the web browser to know how to handle each document it receives, other information is transmitted along with the document. This meta data usually includes the MIME type (e.g., text/html or application/xhtml+xml) and the character encoding (see Character encoding in HTML).

In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document may affect how the document is initially interpreted. A document sent with the XHTML MIME type is expected to be well-formed XML; syntax errors may cause the browser to fail to render it. The same document sent with the HTML MIME type might be displayed successfully since some browsers are more lenient with HTML.

The W3C recommendations state that XHTML 1.0 documents that follow guidelines set forth in the recommendation's Appendix C may be labeled with either MIME Type.[89] XHTML 1.1 also states that XHTML 1.1 documents should[90] be labeled with either MIME type.[91]

HTML e-mail

Main article: HTML email

Most graphical email clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill-defined) to provide formatting and semantic markup not available with plain text. This may include typographic information like colored headings, emphasized and quoted text, inline images and diagrams. Many such clients include both a GUI editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying them. Use of HTML in e-mail is criticized by some because of compatibility issues, because it can help disguise phishing attacks, because of accessibility issues for blind or visually impaired people, because it can confuse spam filters and because the message size is larger than plain text.

Naming conventions

The most common filename extension for files containing HTML is .html. A common abbreviation of this is .htm, which originated because some early operating systems and file systems, such as DOS and the limitations imposed by FAT data structure, limited file extensions to three letters.[92]

HTML Application

Main article: HTML Application

An HTML Application (HTA; file extension .hta) is a Microsoft Windows application that uses HTML and Dynamic HTML in a browser to provide the application's graphical interface. A regular HTML file is confined to the security model of the web browser's security, communicating only to web servers and manipulating only web page objects and site cookies. An HTA runs as a fully trusted application and therefore has more privileges, like creation/editing/removal of files and Windows Registry entries. Because they operate outside the browser's security model, HTAs cannot be executed via HTTP, but must be downloaded (just like an EXE file) and executed from local file system.

HTML4 variations

Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly.[by whom?] However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language. Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details,[93] practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the various browser vendors. The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language[94] and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well-presented documents. To return HTML to its role as a semantic language, the W3C has developed style languages such as CSS and XSL to shoulder the burden of presentation. In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements.

There are two axes differentiating various variations of HTML as currently specified: SGML-based HTML versus XML-based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on one axis, and strict versus transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis.

SGML-based versus XML-based HTML

One difference in the latest[when?] HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML-based specification and the XML-based specification. The XML-based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition. However, the root element name continues to be "html" even in the XHTML-specified HTML. The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds. Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are sometimes documented in parallel. In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names as (X)HTML or X(HTML).

Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, transitional, and frameset.

Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document—in each of the corresponding DTDs—are largely syntactic. The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements with optional opening or closing tags, and even empty elements which must not have an end tag. By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag and a closing tag. XHTML, however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: <br/>. The introduction of this shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention. A fix for this is to include a space before closing the tag, as such: <br />.[95]

To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation of a valid and well-formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a valid HTML 4.01 document. Making this translation requires the following steps:

  1. The language for an element should be specified with a lang attribute rather than the XHTML xml:lang attribute. XHTML uses XML's built-in language-defining functionality attribute.
  2. Remove the XML namespace (xmlns=URI). HTML has no facilities for namespaces.
  3. Change the document type declaration from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. (see DTD section for further explanation).
  4. If present, remove the XML declaration. (Typically this is: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>).
  5. Ensure that the document's MIME type is set to text/html. For both HTML and XHTML, this comes from the HTTP Content-Type header sent by the server.
  6. Change the XML empty-element syntax to an HTML style empty element (<br /> to <br />).

Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags. Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted.

A well-formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML. A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document structure.

The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML (see HTML Compatibility Guidelines). The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only:

  • Include both xml:lang and lang attributes on any elements assigning language.
  • Use the empty-element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML.
  • Include an extra space in empty-element tags: for example <br /> instead of <br />.
  • Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty (for example, <div></div>, not <div />).
  • Omit the XML declaration.

By carefully following the W3C's compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML (with a text/html MIME type), or as XHTML (with an application/xhtml+xml or application/xml MIME type). When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document's contents.

Transitional versus strict

HTML 4 defined three different versions of the language: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose), and Frameset. The Strict version is intended for new documents and is considered best practice, while the Transitional and Frameset versions were developed to make it easier to transition documents that conformed to older HTML specifications or didn't conform to any specification to a version of HTML 4. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version. Instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML 1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML 4, the same differences apply to XHTML 1 as well.

The Transitional version allows the following parts of the vocabulary, which are not included in the Strict version:

  • A looser content model
    • Inline elements and plain text are allowed directly in: body, blockquote, form, noscript and noframes
  • Presentation related elements
    • underline (u)(Deprecated. can confuse a visitor with a hyperlink.)
    • strike-through (s)
    • center (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
    • font (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
    • basefont (Deprecated. use CSS instead.)
  • Presentation related attributes
    • background (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attributes for body (required element according to the W3C.) element.
    • align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on div, form, paragraph (p) and heading (h1...h6) elements
    • align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), noshade (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), size (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and width (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attributes on hr element
    • align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), border, vspace and hspace attributes on img and object (caution: the object element is only supported in Internet Explorer (from the major browsers)) elements
    • align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on legend and caption elements
    • align (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) on table element
    • nowrap (Obsolete), bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), width, height on td and th elements
    • bgcolor (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attribute on tr element
    • clear (Obsolete) attribute on br element
    • compact attribute on dl, dir and menu elements
    • type (Deprecated. use CSS instead.), compact (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) and start (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) attributes on ol and ul elements
    • type and value attributes on li element
    • width attribute on pre element
  • Additional elements in Transitional specification
    • menu (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) list (no substitute, though the unordered list, is recommended)
    • dir (Deprecated. use CSS instead.) list (no substitute, though the unordered list is recommended)
    • isindex (Deprecated.) (element requires server-side support and is typically added to documents server-side, form and input elements can be used as a substitute)
    • applet (Deprecated. use the object element instead.)
  • The language (Obsolete) attribute on script element (redundant with the type attribute).
  • Frame related entities
    • iframe
    • noframes
    • target (Deprecated in the map, link and form elements.) attribute on a, client-side image-map (map), link, form and base elements

The Frameset version includes everything in the Transitional version, as well as the frameset element (used instead of body) and the frame element.

Frameset versus transitional

In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01) specify a different content model, with frameset replacing body, that contains either frame elements, or optionally noframes with a body.

Summary of specification versions

As this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support. Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opens it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification. The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose (transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules). Modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML (a presentational and semantic math language based on XML) and XForms—a new highly advanced web-form technology to replace the existing HTML forms.

In summary, the HTML 4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML 1.0, ported this specification, as is, to the new XML-defined specification. Next, XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML 2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach.

WHATWG HTML versus HTML5

Main article: § Transition of HTML Publication to WHATWG

The HTML Living Standard, which is developed by WHATWG, is the official version, while W3C HTML5 is no longer separate from WHATWG.

WYSIWYG editors

There are some WYSIWYG editors (What You See Is What You Get), in which the user lays out everything as it is to appear in the HTML document using a graphical user interface (GUI), often similar to word processors. The editor renders the document rather than showing the code, so authors do not require extensive knowledge of HTML.

The WYSIWYG editing model has been criticized,[96][97] primarily because of the low quality of the generated code; there are voices[who?] advocating a change to the WYSIWYM model (What You See Is What You Mean).

WYSIWYG editors remain a controversial topic because of their perceived flaws such as:

  • Relying mainly on the layout as opposed to meaning, often using markup that does not convey the intended meaning but simply copies the layout.[98]
  • Often producing extremely verbose and redundant code that fails to make use of the cascading nature of HTML and CSS.
  • Often producing ungrammatical markup, called tag soup or semantically incorrect markup (such as <em> for italics).
  • As a great deal of the information in HTML documents is not in the layout, the model has been criticized for its "what you see is all you get"-nature.[99]

See also

References

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  3. ^ Tim Berners-Lee, "Information Management: A Proposal." CERN (March 1989, May 1990). W3.org
  4. ^ Tim Berners-Lee, "Design Issues"
  5. ^ "Tags used in HTML". info.cern.ch. October 1991. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Tags used in HTML". w3. World Wide Web Consortium. November 3, 1992. Archived from the original on January 31, 2010. Retrieved November 16, 2008.
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  90. ^ Bradner, Scott O. (1997). "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate Requirement Levels". Internet Engineering Task Force. doi:10.17487/RFC2119. RFC 2119. Retrieved December 7, 2008. 3. SHOULD This word, or the adjective "RECOMMENDED", mean that there may exist valid reasons in particular circumstances to ignore a particular item, but the full implications must be understood and carefully weighed before choosing a different course.
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External links


Technology


Technology

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Technology (disambiguation).
Photo of technicians working on a steam turbine
A steam turbine with the case opened, an example of energy technology

Technology is the application of knowledge for achieving practical goals in a reproducible way.[1] The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,[2]: 117 [3] including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.

Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy.

While technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, there are ongoing philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides.

Etymology

Technology is a term dating back to the early 17th century that meant 'systematic treatment' (from Greek Τεχνολογία, from the Greek: τέχνη, romanized: tékhnē, lit. 'craft, art' and -λογία, 'study, knowledge').[4][5] It is predated in use by the Ancient Greek word tékhnē, used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture.[6]

Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms Technik (German) or technique (French) to refer to a 'way of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments.[2]: 114–115  At the time, Technologie (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts", or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts."[2]: 117  Since the distinction between Technik and Technologie is absent in English, both were translated as technology. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[7]

In the 20th century, as a result of scientific progress and the Second Industrial Revolution, technology stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on its current-day meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends.[2]: 119 

History

Main articles: History of technology and Timeline of historic inventions

Prehistoric

Main article: Prehistoric technology
refer to caption
A person holding a hand axe

Tools were initially developed by hominids through observation and trial and error.[8] Around 2 Mya (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp hand axe.[9] This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) into pressure flaking, enabling much finer work.[10]

The discovery of fire was described by Charles Darwin as "possibly the greatest ever made by man".[11] Archeological, dietary, and social evidence point to "continuous [human] fire-use" at least 1.5 Mya.[12] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[13] The cooking hypothesis proposes that the ability to cook promoted an increase in hominid brain size, though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive.[14] Archeological evidence of hearths was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified human socialization and may have contributed to the emergence of language.[15][16]

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter.[17] No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archeologists have found archeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya[18] and shelter 450 kya.[17] As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.[19][20] Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving to Eurasia.[21][22][23]

Neolithic

Main article: Neolithic Revolution
Photo of Neolithic tools on display
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools

The Neolithic Revolution (or First Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity.[24] The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming.[25] This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such as Ireland.[26] Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by nomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in hunter-gatherer activities.[27][28]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization.[29] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to have played a role.[30]

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the first time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead  – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.[31] The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 10 ka).[32] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4,000 BCE). The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.[33][34]

Ancient

Main article: Ancient technology
Photo of an early wooden wheel
The wheel was invented circa 4,000 BCE.

After harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE.[35] From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and "catch" basins.[36] The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation.[37]

Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Central Europe.[38] Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE.[39] The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3,500 BCE.[40] More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana Marsh of Slovenia.[41]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used a potter's wheel and may have invented it.[42] A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of Ur dates to around 3,429 BCE,[43] and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area.[43] Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois[44] and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3,000 BCE.[44]

The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to circa 4,000 BCE,[45] and timber roads leading through the swamps of Glastonbury, England, dating to around the same period.[45] The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE,[45] spanned 2,400 km from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea,[45] but was not paved and was only partially maintained.[45] In around 2,000 BCE, the Minoans on the Greek island of Crete built a 50 km road leading from the palace of Gortyn on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace of Knossos on the north side of the island.[45] Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.[45]

refer to caption
Photograph of the Pont du Gard in France, one of the most famous ancient Roman aqueducts[46]

Ancient Minoan private homes had running water.[47] A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.[47][48] Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain.[47] The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets,[48] which emptied into an extensive sewage system.[48] The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima;[48] construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.[48]

The ancient Romans also had a complex system of aqueducts,[46] which were used to transport water across long distances.[46] The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE.[46] The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.[46] Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km,[46] but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.[46]

Pre-modern

Main articles: Medieval technology and Renaissance technology

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks.[49] A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including Oxford and Cambridge.[50]

The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the movable type printing press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.[51]

Modern

Main articles: Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution, and Digital Revolution
Photo of a Ford Model T on a road
The automobile revolutionized personal transportation.

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery of steam power set off the Industrial Revolution, which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, and the widespread application of the factory system.[52] This was followed a century later by the Second Industrial Revolution which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, including sewage systems, electricity, light bulbs, electric motors, railroads, automobiles, and airplanes. These technological advances led to significant developments in medicine, chemistry, physics, and engineering.[53] They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization.[54] Communication improved with the invention of the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, and television.[55]

The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were invented and later shifted from analog to digital in the Digital Revolution. Information technology, particularly optical fiber and optical amplifiers led to the birth of the Internet, which ushered in the Information Age. The Space Age began with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, and later the launch of crewed missions to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence have used radio telescopes to detect signs of technology use, or technosignatures, given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were developed for diagnosis (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis machine, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (like interferon cloning and DNA microarrays).[56]

Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entire industries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training.[57] Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science; and other fields have become more complex, such as construction, transportation, and architecture.

Impact

Main article: Technology and society

Technological change is the largest cause of long-term economic growth.[58][59] Throughout human history, energy production was the main constraint on economic development, and new technologies allowed humans to significantly increase the amount of available energy. First came fire, which made edible a wider variety of foods, and made it less physically demanding to digest them. Fire also enabled smelting, and the use of tin, copper, and iron tools, used for hunting or tradesmanship. Then came the agricultural revolution: humans no longer needed to hunt or gather to survive, and began to settle in towns and cities, forming more complex societies, with militaries and more organized forms of religion.[60]

Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and medical progress, but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups.

Recent years have brought about a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation technology" that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet's downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.[61]

Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy.

Social

Jobs

Photo of a car assembly line, with numerous robots
A Volkswagen electric car being built with Siemens automation technology

Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs.[62] Studies have found that computers did not create significant net technological unemployment. [63] Due to artificial intelligence being far more capable than computers, and still being in its infancy, it is not known whether it will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment.[64] According to the World Economic Forum's "The Future of Jobs Report 2020", AI is predicted to replace 85 million jobs worldwide, and create 97 million new jobs by 2025.[65][66] From 1990 to 2007, a study in the U.S by MIT economist Daron Acemoglu showed that an addition of one robot for every 1,000 workers decreased the employment-to-population ratio by 0.2%, or about 3.3 workers, and lowered wages by 0.42%.[67][68] Concerns about technology replacing human labor however are long-lasting. As US president Lyndon Johnson said in 1964, “Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress.” upon signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill.[69][70][71][72][73]

Security

With the growing reliance of technology, there have been security and privacy concerns along with it. Billions of people use different online payment methods, such as WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, and much more to help transfer money. Although security measures are placed, some criminals are able to bypass them.[74] In March 2022, North Korea used Blender.io, a mixer which helped them to hide their cryptocurrency exchanges, to launder over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency, from Axie Infinity, and steal over $600 million worth of cryptocurrency from the games owner. Because of this, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, which marked the first time it has taken action against a mixer, to try and crack down on North Korean hackers.[75][76] The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.[74]

Environmental

Technology has impacted the world with negative and positive environmental impacts, which are usually the reverse of the initial damage, such as; the creation of pollution and the attempt to undo said pollution,[77] deforestation and the reversing of deforestation,[78] and oil spills. All of these have had a significant impact on the environment of the earth. As technology has advanced, so has the negative environmental impact, with the releasing of greenhouse gases, like methane and carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere, causing the greenhouse effect, gradually heating the earth and causing global warming. All of this has become worse with the advancement of technology.[79]

Pollution

Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as the Inca empire. They used a lead sulfide flux in the smelting of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted clay kiln, which released lead into the atmosphere and the sediment of rivers.[80]

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of technology

Philosophy of technology is a branch of philosophy that studies the "practice of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created."[81] It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s.[82] The humanities philosophy of technology is concerned with the "meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture".[81]

Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties.[83] Marx framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believed that technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was "freed from societal deformations". Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later shifted their focus from economics and politics to "daily life and living in a techno-material culture," arguing that technology could oppress "even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors." Third-stage philosophers like Don Ihde and Albert Borgmann represent a turn toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with technology.[82][page needed]

Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: technological determinism, and social construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes.[84]: 95  It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progression and cannot be prevented.[85] Social constructivists[who?] argue that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Modern scholarship has shifted towards an analysis of sociotechnical systems, "assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings", looking at the value judgments that shape technology.[84][page needed]

Cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called "technopolies," societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views.[86] Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological health.[87]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics of technology

The ethics of technology is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology's ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate the potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life.[88]

Prominent debates have surrounded genetically modified organisms, the use of robotic soldiers, algorithmic bias, and the issue of aligning AI behavior with human values[89]

Technology ethics encompasses several key fields. Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research. Computer ethics focuses on issues related to computing. Cyberethics explores internet-related issues like intellectual property rights, privacy, and censorship. Nanoethics examines issues surrounding the alteration of matter at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer science, engineering, and biology. And engineering ethics deals with the professional standards of engineers, including software engineers and their moral responsibilities to the public.[90]

A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with the ethics of artificial intelligence: it includes robot ethics, which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots,[91] as well as machine ethics, which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior of artificial intelligent agents.[92] Within the field of AI ethics, significant yet-unsolved research problems include AI alignment (ensuring that AI behaviors are aligned with their creators' intended goals and interests) and the reduction of algorithmic bias. Some researchers have warned against the hypothetical risk of an AI takeover, and have advocated for the use of AI capability control in addition to AI alignment methods.

Other fields of ethics have had to contend with technology-related issues, including military ethics, media ethics, and educational ethics.

Futures studies

Main article: Futures studies

Futures studies is the systematic and interdisciplinary study of social and technological progress. It aims to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the range of plausible futures and to incorporate human values in the development of new technologies.[93]: 54  More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving "the freedom and welfare of humankind".[93]: 73  It relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future.[93] Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas.[93]: 173  Futures research methodologies include survey research, modeling, statistical analysis, and computer simulations.[93]: 187 

Existential risk

Main article: Global catastrophic risk

Existential risk researchers analyze risks that could lead to human extinction or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience against them.[94][95] Relevant research centers include the Cambridge Center for the Study of Existential Risk, and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative.[96] Future technologies may contribute to the risks of artificial general intelligence, biological warfare, nuclear warfare, nanotechnology, anthropogenic climate change, global warming, or stable global totalitarianism, though technologies may also help us mitigate asteroid impacts and gamma-ray bursts.[97] In 2019 philosopher Nick Bostrom introduced the notion of a vulnerable world, "one in which there is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default", citing the risks of a pandemic caused by bioterrorists, or an arms race triggered by the development of novel armaments and the loss of mutual assured destruction.[98] He invites policymakers to question the assumptions that technological progress is always beneficial, that scientific openness is always preferable, or that they can afford to wait until a dangerous technology has been invented before they prepare mitigations.[98]

Emerging technologies

Main article: Emerging technologies
Photo of a scientist looking at a microscope pointed at a petri dish
Experimental 3D printing of muscle tissue

Emerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, 3D printing, blockchains, and artificial intelligence.

In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics, with robotics being the most impactful of the three.[99] Genetic engineering will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process called directed evolution. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and have urged for renewed public debate exploring the issue more thoroughly;[100] others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality. Nanotechnology will grant us the ability to manipulate matter "at the molecular and atomic scale",[101] which could allow us to reshape ourselves and our environment in fundamental ways.[102] Nanobots could be used within the human body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line between biology and technology.[103] Autonomous robots have undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, including search and rescue, bomb disposal, firefighting, and war.[104]

Estimates on the advent of artificial general intelligence vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every task better and more cheaply" than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140.[105] This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased emphasis on computer science education and debates about UBI. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a rise in extremism, while others see it as an opportunity to usher in a post-scarcity economy.

Movements

Appropriate technology

Main article: Appropriate technology

Some segments of the 1960s hippie counterculture grew to dislike urban living and developed a preference for locally autonomous, sustainable, and decentralized technology, termed appropriate technology. This later influenced hacker culture and technopaganism.

Technological utopianism

Main article: Technological utopianism

Technological utopianism refers to the belief that technological development is a moral good, which can and should bring about a utopia, that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens.[106] Examples of techno-utopian goals include post-scarcity economics, life extension, mind uploading, cryonics, and the creation of artificial superintelligence. Major techno-utopian movements include transhumanism and singularitarianism.

The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form" through science and technology, informed by "life-promoting principles and values."[107] The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.[108]

Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence will "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. This event horizon is known as the technological singularity.[109]

Major figures of techno-utopianism include Ray Kurzweil and Nick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism from progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.[110]

Anti-technology backlash

See also: Luddite, Neo-Luddism, and Bioconservatism
refer to caption
Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812

Technology's central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.[111]

The earliest known revolt against technology was Luddism, a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a process known as technological unemployment.

Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terrorist Ted Kaczynski carried out a series of bombings across America and published the Unabomber Manifesto denouncing technology's negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a large part of the American public.[112] It was partly inspired by Jacques Ellul's The Technological Society.[113]

Some subcultures, like the off-the-grid movement, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. The ecovillage movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.[114]

Relation to science and engineering

Drawing of Lavoisier conducting an experiment in front of onlookers
Antoine Lavoisier experimenting with combustion generated by amplified sunlight
See also: Science and Engineering

Engineering is the process by which technology is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints.[115] Technological development is "action-oriented", while scientific knowledge is fundamentally explanatory.[116] Polish philosopher Henryk Skolimowski framed it like so: "science concerns itself with what is, technology with what is to be."[117]: 375 

The direction of causality between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers.[118] Because innovation is often undertaken at the edge of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, but instead from engineering, tinkering and chance.[119]: 217–240  For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still crude, jet engines were invented through "running the device to destruction, analyzing what broke [...] and repeating the process".[115] Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them.[119]: 217–240  Many discoveries also arose from pure chance, like the discovery of penicillin as a result of accidental lab contamination.[120] Since the 1960s, the assumption that government funding of basic research would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost credibility.[121][122] Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions of serendipity and convexity through frequent trial and error are more likely to lead to useful innovations than research that aims to reach specific outcomes.[119][123]

Despite this, modern technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1979, an average of one in three patents granted in the U.S. cited the scientific literature; by 1989, this increased to an average of one citation per patent. The average was skewed upwards by patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics.[124] A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.[125]

Other animal species

See also: Tool use by animals, Structures built by animals, and Ecosystem engineer
Photo of a gorilla walking hip-deep in a pond, holding a stick
This adult gorilla uses a branch as a walking stick to gauge the water's depth.

The use of basic technology is also a feature of non-human animal species. Tool use was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.[126] This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use among chimpanzees and other primates,[127] dolphins,[128] and crows.[129][130] For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using basic foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines as probes to fish termites.[131] West African chimpanzees use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,[132] as do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil.[133] Tool use is not the only form of animal technology use; for example, beaver dams, built with wooden sticks or large stones, are a technology with "dramatic" impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.[134]

Popular culture

See also: Science fiction

The relationship of humanity with technology has been explored in science-fiction literature, for example in Brave New World, A Clockwork Orange, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Isaac Asimov's essays, and movies like Minority Report, Total Recall, Gattaca, and Inception. It has spawned the dystopian and futuristic cyberpunk genre, which juxtaposes futuristic technology with societal collapse, dystopia or decay.[135] Notable cyberpunk works include William Gibson's Neuromancer novel, and movies like Blade Runner, and The Matrix.

See also

References

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